The ebb and flow of power between various factions dictated domestic history for much of the following centuries. In the same way that an emperor relying on the loyalty of increasingly powerful and militarized families was a recipe for civil disharmony, the fact that the shogun’s power rested at least partially in the allegiance of numerous daimyo (feudal lords) precipitated a similar dissipation of control.
Foreign forces, specifically the attempted invasions by Mongol forces in 1274 and 1281, also played a notable role in diluting the power of the shoguns. Whereas the victors in inter-clan warfare could distribute lands and spoils as rewards to their loyal samurai, invading forces offered no land and very few spoils, leading to discontent and weakening the samurai’s bond with the shogun.
The samurai fend off the invasion of the Mongolians.
By the end of the 15th century, the country had descended into a period of civil war known as the sengoku-jidai. For the next 100 years, the powerful clans spread throughout the land would each vie to further their position in the political landscape. These clans had their own “house codes,” which often took precedence over the laws of the government, and in some cases even issued their own currency. While the emperor and shogun continued to exist, their control over the domains of the daimyo was limited at best.
The sengoku-jidai also left its mark on the physical landscape: agriculture progressed as the daimyo tried to make the most of the land in their domain, and castles began to mottle the landscape as they sought to shore up their defenses or make conspicuous displays of power. Many of Japan’s most famous castles were constructed during these centuries of civil strife, including Himeji (1333), Odawara (1447), and Matsumoto (1504). Three men would eventually reunify Japan: Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Oda Nobunaga was by far the most brutal of the three. Born in Nagoya to a deputy military governor, he took control of the family land in 1551. Within six years, he had slaughtered his uncle and younger brother—both of whom had made attempts to seize power—and begun a ruthless campaign to extend his territory. Little mercy was shown to those who disobeyed him, and the militarized Buddhist sects in particular received short shrift; Nobunaga made it a personal goal to exterminate them at the root.
Ironically, while foreign influences had previously weakened the shogun’s power, they also provided the tool that would help put the country back together: the gun. Acutely aware of the role this new technology could play on the battlefield, Nobunaga ordered 500 tanegashima (the Japanese arquebus) from local makers and ensured they were a permanent fixture in his army.
By the time of Nobunaga’s own violent death nine years later—he committed seppuku after being betrayed and put under siege by one of his own vassals—he had made territorial gains that formed the base for further unification by his successors, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616).
Both Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were raised in the shadow of Nobunaga. Hideyoshi, a brilliant strategist born to a foot soldier, worked his way up to become one of Nobunaga’s most trusted aides. Ieyasu was six years Hideyoshi’s junior, born in 1543 to a minor lord of Mikawa.
Ieyasu’s early years illustrate the tumultuous nature of the late sengoku-jidai. At the age of six, Ieyasu was sent as a “hostage” to the Imagawa clan. However, he was captured en route by the Oda clan. Despite threats of execution, Ieyasu’s life was spared. He eventually grew up to be a great warrior, initially fighting for the Imagawa before switching sides to join Nobunaga.
Upon Nobunaga’s death in 1582, Hideyoshi emerged as the successor. Hideyoshi favored a more subtle approach to pacifying rivals than his predecessor, often adopting their sons or allowing defeated enemies to join his forces. He nevertheless sought massive territorial expansion, conquering Shikoku (1585) and Kyushu (1587) before turning his attention to Korea. These ultimately unsuccessful foreign excursions put a strain on Hideyoshi’s resources and left deep-seated resentment in the region.
Aside from unification, Hideyoshi is remembered for his katana-gari (“Sword Hunt”), an edict which forced samurai to live in the cities and forbade farmers from bearing arms. This removed the samurai’s independent power bases and ensured that no one could seize territory by force as he had done.
Ieyasu’s allegiance to Hideyoshi was pragmatic rather than loyal. Following the Siege of Odawara in 1590, a deal was struck where Ieyasu gave up his southern provinces in exchange for the undeveloped Kanto area, which included Edo (now Tokyo). While Hideyoshi was bogged down in Korea, Ieyasu concentrated on the administration of the rich Kanto plains. Upon Hideyoshi’s death in 1598, this power base allowed Ieyasu to secure victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 and assume the title of shogun, heralding the Edo period.
