The relative ease with which power shifted back to the emperor stood in contrast to the huge task of nationalization which lay ahead. While Tokugawa rule had unified the country, governance was still semi-feudal in nature and the social structure remained based on the shinokosho hierarchy.
The emperor moved from Kyoto to Edo in 1868, and the city became the official capital, subsequently renamed Tokyo (“Eastern City”). The task of day-to-day governance, however, was carried out by a select group of advisors—men of standing from the southern clans of Satsuma and Choshu who had played a significant role in the Meiji Restoration. These men, called genro, would effectively run the show in the background for most of the Meiji era. Once again in Japanese history, the south—partially regarded today as the backwater of the country—played an inordinate role in the country’s political and economic development.
One of the first acts of the new polity was to implement the Charter Oath, considered to be the country’s first modern constitution. It consisted of five progressive, basic tenets:
Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by open discussion.
All classes, high and low, shall be united in vigorously carrying out the administration of affairs of state.
The common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall all be allowed to pursue their own calling so that there may be no discontent.
Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of Nature.
Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule.
The fifth point demands particular attention as it paved the way for Japan to embrace the superior technological and industrial knowledge held by the Western powers. It is ironic that although the “expel the barbarians, revere the emperor” camp had played a significant role in bringing about the end of Tokugawa rule (a period known as bakumatsu), the constitution clearly ended the country’s isolationist policy.
Japan wasted no time in playing catch-up. Just about all aspects of governance and state were reformed. The military was modeled on the French system; the navy on the British fleet. In addition, a multitude of highly paid foreign advisors were brought to Japan to instruct on subjects ranging from agriculture and medicine to engineering and education. Mining, steel production, shipbuilding, cotton spinning, textiles, and silk all witnessed rapid expansion during the Meiji era. Annual coal production, for instance, stood at 210,000 tons in 1874, but by the turn of the century, it would reach over 4 million tons and continue to more than double each decade, such that by the end of World War I, it would stand at over 30 million tons. Women played a key role in the silk and textile factories, working long hours and often in extremely poor conditions. By the late 19th century, Japanese silk accounted for over 25% of the world’s market.
Progress was not only industrial, but social as well. First, the shinokosho hierarchy was disassembled and samurai, farmer, artisan, and merchant alike were given the status of “commoner.” Even the hinin (literally, “non-human,” referring to those in undesirable professions such as undertaking), were recognized as commoners. For the samurai, the final nail in their coffin was nationwide conscription in 1873, which meant that the right to bear arms was no longer theirs alone. The Land Tax Reform of the same year saw the domains of the daimyo replaced with prefectures and the right to private ownership put into law.
Realizing that it could not continue to rely on foreign advisers for sustained development, Japan implemented a program of sending statesmen and promising students abroad to study. The most famous of these is the Iwakura Mission (1871–1873), which saw leading statesmen, scholars, and students travel to the United States and Europe before returning to Japan via Egypt, Ceylon, and Singapore.
The leaders of the Iwakura Mission photographed in London in 1872. Iwakura Tomomi, the head of the mission, sits in the middle.
School education was made compulsory and, by the turn of the century, attendance rates surpassed those of many Western nations. The educated workforce created by this system would serve Japan well throughout the 20th century. Nevertheless, the philosophical question around Japan’s standing with the Western powers remained, and a “colonize or be colonized” mindset was slowly ingrained in the minds of the ruling elite.
Despite its grievances at being forced to sign the Harris Treaty, Japan used gunboat diplomacy to strong-arm Korea into signing the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876. This marked the starting point of Japan’s imperial ambitions. It also undermined Korea’s status as a Chinese tributary by re-affirming the country as an independent state. One failed coup and a broken Sino-Japanese agreement later, Japan and China were at war (1894–1895). The Japanese army won swiftly, occupying Korea and parts of Manchuria before the Chinese sued for peace.
Japanese hopes for official rights to land and indemnity were thwarted by Russia, Germany, and France in the Triple Intervention. Russia also had interests in the Korean peninsula, leading to the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. Japan’s navy proved decisive, making a surprise attack at Port Arthur before destroying the Russian fleet in the Tsushima Straits. It was the first time a Western power had been defeated by an Asian nation in modern history, sending shock waves through the international community.
Japan joined World War I at the request of Great Britain in August 1914, occupying German territories in China. Its role earned it a seat on the Council of the League of Nations. Spurred on by its new status, Japan pushed for a racial equality clause to be included in the Treaty of Versailles. Despite majority support, the proposal was rejected by the U.S. and Great Britain. This was followed by the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which limited Japan’s naval construction, and the 1924 U.S. Immigration Act, which barred Japanese from entering the country. These rebuffs fueled ultra-nationalist movements, and Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.
The 1930s witnessed a rise in political turmoil and assassinations. The Kwantung Army in Manchuria began to exercise autonomy from Tokyo, staging the Manchurian Incident in 1931 as a pretext for annexation. In 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident escalated into the second Sino-Japanese War. Japanese aggression in China—especially reports of atrocities in Nanking—brought international condemnation. In August 1941, the U.S. froze Japanese assets and placed a complete oil embargo on the country. Prime Minister Tojo Hideki responded with a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The U.S. declared war the following day.
By mid-1942, the tide began to turn. Japan’s navy suffered major losses at the Battle of Midway, and the capture of Saipan in 1944 brought the Japanese mainland within range of B-29 bombers. The air raids on Tokyo that followed were among the most destructive in history; Operation Meetinghouse in March 1945 saw 300 B-29s drop nearly 2,000 tons of napalm, killing over 100,000 people. Brutal fighting on Iwo Jima and Okinawa followed as Allied forces moved toward Honshu.
An aerial photograph over Tokyo shows the devastating effects of the air raids.
On 6 August 1945, the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Following a failed coup d’état by military holdouts, Emperor Hirohito’s recorded surrender speech was broadcast on 15 August. He beseeched the populace to “endure the unendurable and suffer what is not sufferable.” It was the first time the Japanese public had heard the voice of their emperor.
